If $${M_O}$$ is the mass of an oxygen isotope $${}_8{O^{17}}$$ , $${M_p}$$ and $${M_N}$$ are the masses of a proton and neutron respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the isotope is

An alpha nucleus of energy $${1 \over 2}m{v^2}$$ bombards a heavy nuclear target of charge $$Ze$$. Then the distance of closest approach for the alpha nucleus will be proportional to

The energy spectrum of $$\beta $$-particles [ number $$N(E)$$ as a function of $$\beta $$-energy $$E$$ ] emitted from a radioactive source is

The $$'rad'$$ is the correct unit used to report the measurement of