A four phase and an eight-phase signal constellation are shown in the figure below.

For the constraint that the minimum distance between pairs of signal points be d for both constellations, the radii r₁, and r² of the circles are

The root locus plot for a system is given below. The open loop transfer function corresponding to this plot is given by

The differential equation $$$100\frac{\mathrm d^2\mathrm y}{\mathrm{dt}^2}-20\frac{\mathrm{dy}}{\mathrm{dt}}+\mathrm y=\mathrm x\left(\mathrm t\right)$$$ describes a system with an input x(t) and an output y(t). The system, which is initially relaxed, is excited by a unit step input. The output y(t) can be represented by the waveform

For the transfer function G$$\left( {j\omega } \right) = 5 + j\omega ,$$ the corresponding Nyquist plot for positive frequency has the form