Which one of the following are used to generate a message digest by the network security protocols?
(P) RSA
(Q) SHA-1
(R) DES
(S) MD5

An access sequence of cache block addresses is of length $$N$$ and contains $$n$$ unique block address. The number of unique block addresses between two consecutive accesses to the same block address is bounded above by $$k.$$ What is the miss ratio if the access sequence is passed through a cache of associativity $$A\, \ge \,k$$ exercising least-recently-used replacement policy?

Consider a $$6$$-stage instruction pipeline, where all stages are perfectly balanced. Assume that there is no cycle-time overhead of pipelining. When an application is executing on this $$6$$-stage pipeline, the speedup achieved with respect to non-pipelined execution if $$25$$% of the instructions incur $$2$$ pipeline stall cycles is________________.

A machine has a $$32$$-bit architecture, with $$1$$-word long instructions. It has $$64$$ registers, each of which is $$32$$ bits long. It needs to support $$45$$ instructions, which have an immediate operand in addition to two register operands. Assuming that the immediate operand is an unsigned integer, the maximum value of the immediate operand is ____________.